The 1920s marked a completely new period for Hungary. As a consequence of the Trianon Peace Treaty, two-thirds of the territory of the thousand-year-old country was annexed, completely paralysing its economy and the lives of its population. Millions of Hungarians were displaced from their homeland with a single stroke of the pen, triggering a massive migration to the territory of a mutilated Hungary. The intellectual and material strength of Hungarian society was weakened. However, a character came to the fore whose name is still associated with the rebirth of culture and education: Count Kunó Klebelsberg.
He served as Minister of Culture from 1922 to 1931,[1] during which time he sought to address the pressing challenges of a nation in crisis. How did he combat illiteracy? What new types of schools emerged? How did secondary education change, and what new opportunities opened up for women? These are the questions we seek to answer as we explore an era that fundamentally shaped the course of 20th-century Hungarian education.
The War Against Illiteracy: Elementary Schools and Out-Of-School Education
Count Kunó Klebelsberg started a new conquest, so to speak, when he made it his mission to integrate the people of the farms into the educational system at the elementary level.[2] It was a serious problem after the war that in the school year 1920/21, 17.2 per cent of the pupils enrolled in primary school did not attend school. In addition, 15.2 per cent of the population over six years of age were illiterate, equivalent to just over a million people in the country.[3] Interestingly, these rates were high although Article XXXVIII of the 1868 Law made parents who did not enrol their children in compulsory primary education punishable.[4] After 50 years, the law was still incompletely enforced.
The Count believed it was a misconception that all parents intentionally neglected their children’s compulsory schooling. In his opinion, this must have had underlying microeconomic reasons. A child of 11–12 years of age could be of great help around the house with chores, which consequently entailed the depopulation of elementary schools by fifth grade. However, this was not a satisfactory reason for such a high illiteracy rate since a child should have acquired reading skills by the age of 10. Nevertheless, after the First World War, he saw that people who had been to the front had seen the need and usefulness of acquiring more knowledge. In order for compulsory education to be successful, he saw the need to enable the population to send their children to school, as there were physical constraints (in many cases, schools were too far from their homes).
‘In order for compulsory education to be successful, he saw the need to enable the population to send their children to school’
Besides this, Count Kunó Klebelsberg saw two main reasons why the current state of education culminated in such a state. One reason was the orientation of the former Hungarian education policy, which had set up numerous schools in the later annexed peripheries to promote assimilation. In the process, however, the pure Hungarian areas were neglected, and once the country’s peripheries were annexed, Hungarian education found itself with an insufficient number of classrooms.
The other serious reason was the uniqueness of the Hungarian settlement structure. In Hungary, there were only a few settlements of several thousand people that could sustain a school, and instead, the Hungarians lived in a decentralized way, scattered on farms.[5]
The outskirts of Budapest and its surroundings have faced similar problems. The rural population showed a tendency of gradual migration to the city, which led to a significant increase in the population of the villages surrounding the capital. In one of his speeches, Klebelsberg mentions ‘Kispest, whose population rose from 9,804 in 1900 to 51,064 in 1920.’[6] This was exacerbated by the fact that this noticeable problem was spreading along the railway lines to the capital as well.[7]
Before his ten years as minister, Klebelsberg conducted an education gap survey to obtain a comprehensive view of the country’s educational situation. While the number of pupils in compulsory education was lower than it should have been, the results also clearly indicated the inadequate number of schools and teachers.[8] The time was ripe for new legislation that, while reinforcing the criminalization of failure to enrol, aimed to establish elementary schools for the children of the rural population in the Great Hungarian Plain. These were Articles XXX of 1921 and VII of 1926. Although there were voices raised against the education of the peasantry, fearing that the education they received would lead to demands for additional rights and disobedience, they remained neglected.[9]
Before delving into the details of the first elementary school building programme, I would like to briefly touch on the work accomplished prior to the 1926 law that provided for the establishment of elementary schools. Between 1918 and 1925, 441 classrooms and 221 teachers’ apartments were constructed, a significant number considering that the war-torn country demanded investment in all areas of life and the economy.[10] Consequently, Article VII of the Laws of 1926 established an Elementary School Fund.[11] From then on, a central institution managed the funds for this purpose.[12]
By the 1920s, thanks to the loan from the League of Nations and the increase in industrial production, the money accumulating in the State Treasury made it possible to launch a large-scale programme to build elementary schools.[13] The two million crowns earmarked by the Ministry of Culture for the 1925/26 year for the construction of the elementary schools gave impetus, and although this would not have been enough to achieve the number of targeted ‘objects’[14] (classrooms and teachers’ residence), Klebelsberg could say that: ‘I however, have the promise of the Minister of Finance, that the amount would remain in the public education budget for many years to come.’[15] This amount was also laid down in law and included in the budget so that the state would provide funding for the programme in the following years to come.[16]
‘During the war, numerous elementary schools were in a state of disrepair, often being used as warehouses or barracks’
During the war, numerous elementary schools were in a state of disrepair, often being used as warehouses or barracks. Consequently, these buildings also needed to be made suitable for accommodating students.[17] Thus, according to the programme’s priority list, the buildings to be renovated and completed were listed first, followed by the most uneducated villages:[18] ‘the establishment and construction of elementary schools may be ordered ex officio in any place where, in an area (district) of a radius of at least one and a half kilometres and not more than four kilometres, scattered or concentrated in an area (district) owned or held by one or more natural or legal persons, there are at least 20 families or 30 children of compulsory school age, calculated as an average over the last three years, and no other school within the district suitable for all pupils.’[19]
The numerous newly built elementary schools emerged as a notable phenomenon in the Great Hungarian Plain. Since Count Kunó Klebelsberg insisted that the buildings be constructed from quality materials, the new schools represented a radical change from the typical adobe structures of the Great Hungarian Plain, characterized by their thatched roofs and tiled clay floors. The school buildings were made of brick and had larch floors, large glass windows, and slate roofs.[20] The buildings thus constructed were timeless and could accommodate hundreds of students a day.
The 5,000th object was the 12-room Szeged-Rókus elementary school, which was inaugurated on 25 October 1930 and completed the first part of the construction of the elementary school. Of the 5,000 objects built up to that date, 3,306 (66.1 per cent) were built in the Great Hungarian Plain, 1,393 (27.9 per cent) in the Transdanubian region and 301 (6 per cent) in the northeastern part of the country. The programme has achieved its objective: the construction of 5,000 sites with a strong emphasis on the Great Hungarian Plain.[21]
By 1931, 5,748 classrooms, 2,278 teachers’ dwellings, 1,555 public libraries and 1,500 school libraries had been built.[22] It is interesting to note that since the law specified precisely where and when to build elementary schools, there were regions where, although the illiteracy rate lower than the domestic average, many objects were built. One such area was Vas County, where, although the illiteracy rate was lower than the national level, many schools were established due to the local settlement structure.[23]
Unfortunately, however, the second phase of the elementary school building programme was not as successful as the first. Two main factors played a role in this. Firstly, the resignation of Count Kunó Klebelsberg in the early 1930s, whose dynamism and network did not provide the backing for the second phase of the programme. The second was the outbreak of the global economic crisis, which, like in many other countries, hit Hungary hard. As a result, between the school years 1930/31 and 1937/38, only 43 additional schools were constructed in the country.[24]
The catching up of the Great Hungarian Plain included a programme of extracurricular folk education.[25] This was also a means of combating illiteracy. In one of his speeches, Klebelsberg suggested that it would be worthwhile for the population over 18 to have 65 hours of compulsory evening classes in the winter when there was no work around the house to be done. That way, peasants would come to the mandatory courses.[26] The venue for folk schooling was the newly built elementary schools, which also served as a central social venue for village life. The programme consisted of lectures that took account of local conditions and courses in arithmetic and literacy.[27]
‘By the end of the 1920s, the number of illiterate individuals had decreased from one million to seven hundred thousand’
The fight against illiteracy was successful. By the end of the 1920s, the number of illiterate individuals had decreased from one million to seven hundred thousand, thanks to the introduction of elementary schools and folk education.[28] These seven hundred thousand people were 6.4 per cent of the population, less than half the rate recorded a decade earlier. The programme’s success was also reflected in the average education level of the population, which had increased in population size. In 1920, the average Hungarian attended school for 4.45 years, but by 1944, this had risen to 6.34.[29]
Higher Elementary School
The higher elementary school was a legacy of the Austro–Hungarian Monarchy. Although it was included in secondary education (yet these institutions were not treated as fully-fledged secondary schools) and prepared its students for higher education, it was still responsible for lower standards than the grammar schools.[30] Therefore, it was not possible to apply to university from here, but only to college.
According to Count Kunó Klebelsberg, there was no realistic possibility in Hungary in the 1920s of introducing compulsory eight-year elementary schools. However, he saw the possibility of reaching a wider mass of people with some form of secondary education in higher elementary schools, which would create a more educated Hungarian society. He believed that it would not have been beneficial for the intellectual standard of the Hungarian masses to fall significantly below that of their German-speaking neighbours, as he expressed in one of his speeches: ‘The good industrialist from Pest is right not to take on an apprentice in his workshop without finishing their 4-year long studies in a higher elementary school, because with modern, complicated methods of production, new, delicate instruments, machines and tools, a man without brains does more harm than good.’[31]
However, this did not only affect industry but also agriculture, as modernization was advancing at a rapid pace in that era. It was then that the machines needed for modern agriculture began to appear, and they required an educated man to operate them.[32]
From the higher elementary schools, students could go to vocational schools, nursery school or teacher training.[33] Completing it qualified students for civil service jobs, which could facilitate social advancement. It made the transition between social classes more fluid. From here students could go to vocational schools of commerce, vocational schools of industry, or vocational schools of agriculture. Typically, independent artisans and small landowners sent their children to receive education in these institutions.
‘The higher elementary school provided women with the opportunity to enter the labour market and become self-reliant’
In addition, the higher elementary school provided women with the opportunity to enter the labour market and become self-reliant.[34] It is no wonder that, besides elementary schools, the building of the higher elementary schools was the backbone of the Ministry of Culture’s activities. The 3 million crowns earmarked for the higher elementary school construction project was enough to launch the programme.[35]
Klebelsberg considered the higher elementary schools essential, as they were closely connected to his education policy regarding secondary schools. The country had many unemployed intellectuals, as many graduates came home from the annexed territories: ‘We do not need large numbers of high school graduates, as we have an abundance of honorary graduates, and I expect our universities to produce a small number of truly first-rate professionals. What we need is a very significant upgrading of the intellectual level of the broad strata of the nation, of the great masses. This is the purpose of the higher elementary school, which is not a secondary school but a very special educational institution that gives the individual who is preparing for a life of earning a living and a long-lasting intellectual support.’[36]
In 1927, Article XII on the higher elementary schools was eventually announced. The school’s mission, as set out in this article, was ‘to provide the pupil with a general education of a religious, moral and nationalistic nature, with a practical orientation, and thus to prepare him directly for practical life or for vocational schools.’[37] Additionally, it set the girls’ higher elementary school the goal of ‘education of an educated, Hungarian middle-class housewife’.[38]
The law went on to state that the civil school for boys and girls had four grades[39] and that admission to it was possible only if the applicant had completed four grades in the elementary school.[40] It was made compulsory to establish a higher elementary school for all municipalities with a local population of more than 5,000,[41] which the Ministry agreed to support if the municipality could not meet this requirement financially.[42]
In conclusion, the institution of the higher elementary school provided an excellent opportunity for the lower strata of society to ascend. This was also possible because the higher elementary school building programme ensured the availability of these institutions. Count Kunó Klebelsberg held high hopes for this type of school, as he recognized its potential for the intellectual advancement of the wider population.
The Reform of Secondary Education
The system of secondary education, including the system of boys’ classical grammar schools,[43] also changed during the reign of Count Kunó Klebelsberg. At the time, the classical grammar school was the ‘most noble’ form of secondary education, and the education of students here was also a political issue since the nationalist Christian middle class, who were the basis of the government of the day, was educated in these institutions.
In the meantime, the high inflation rate and rapid decline in living standards following the world war put this stratum at significant risk of social decline, so retaining this stratum was crucial.[44] This level of education could also be described as ‘the most privileged’: in 1930, only 3.6 per cent of the population aged six and over had completed eight grades of secondary school. The number of school-leavers was much lower than in our time: while in 1930/31, there were 12,000 school-leavers at the national level, in 2023, there were 145,518.[45]
Despite the fact that the middle class was the base of power for the government at the time, Klebelsberg’s education policy did not seek to rapidly increase the number of secondary school students. The reason for this was that many intellectuals from the annexed regions were emigrating to Hungary, which led to an increase in unemployment within this stratum.[46] The relatively minor expansion of secondary schools can also be seen in numbers, with the number of secondary schools increasing by only ten (from 151 to 161) between 1920/21 and 1930/31. These institutions were mainly located in cities and county seats.[47]
‘If I wanted to teach all sorts of things in secondary school, I would only be teaching the young to be superficial, because they would learn something of everything, but not really know anything’
In the forthcoming reform of secondary education, the topic of a single secondary school[48] was a divisive issue at the time. Klebelsberg was not in favour of this idea, as he believed that the knowledge of mankind had grown too much to be condensed into a single type of school: ‘If I wanted to teach all sorts of things in secondary school, I would only be teaching the young to be superficial, because they would learn something of everything, but not really know anything.’[49]
However, there were two arguments put forward in favour of the single secondary school, according to the Count. The first was that it would give the students a chance to make their career choices at a later age. However, this meant pushing out their age from the age of 11 to the age of puberty, 15. In his view, this age still holds too many uncertainties for the child’s soul. The second is that it equips students with basic literacy, which is essential for the development of national compassion.
Nevertheless, this view does not take into account that national subjects can be integrated into all types of secondary schools. In summary, based on the Count’s opinion, a single secondary school would overburden students, and the compromise between the realistic and humanistic directions of science would result in an overly dense curriculum. According to his view, the purpose of secondary education is not to accumulate as much knowledge as possible but to sharpen and refresh the mind—to learn how to learn and to cultivate thinking. [50]
The most urgent tussle that raised fundamental questions, however, was between the humanistic and realistic orientation of science to be taught. Which should prevail? How much predominance, if any, can classical languages have? At the same time, the question arose of how much emphasis should be given to national subjects, such as national history or literature.
Article XI of 1924 brought about significant changes in the life of secondary schools. However, before turning to the problems and future types of secondary schools, it is necessary to familiarize ourselves with the purpose and concept of secondary schools as defined in the Act: ‘The task of secondary school is to educate the pupil to be a moral citizen on religious grounds, to give them a higher general education in a patriotic spirit, and to enable him to do the intellectual work necessary for higher studies.’[51]
The teaching and usefulness of Latin and Greek were increasingly questioned during this period. Count Kunó Klebelsberg aimed to establish differentiated types of schools, as the compulsory study of Latin and the previously mandatory Greek were seen as less practical. Eventually, Act XI of 1924 introduced three distinct types of secondary schools. Alongside the existing real school[52] and the classical grammar school, a new type emerged: the reálgimnázium.[53] But what distinguishes the three types of schools?
Article XI of the 1924 Act makes everything clear. In terms of subjects, the classical grammar school, unlike the other two types of school, continued to teach Greek, and Latin was given a more prominent role. However, English, French, and Italian were not taught, and neither was chemistry. This type of school focused on classical humanities and literacy.[54] The reálgimnázium differed in that it replaced Greek with modern languages (English, French, Italian) while retaining Latin.[55]
The real school focused on practical and scientific subjects. It had the distinction of teaching geometry in drawing and illustration, and chemistry was taught as opposed to the classical grammar school. Still, neither Latin nor Greek was taught within the walls of these institutions.[56] Aside from the few subjects, one commonality shared among the different types of secondary schools was that all three types consisted of eight grades.[57] What may be striking, however, when reading the text of the law, is that it stipulates that a classical grammar school could only be maintained or established in municipalities where at least one of the other two types of schools (reálgimnázium or real school) could be found.[58]
The reason behind this lies in the very rationale for creating the reálgimnázium. As noted previously, the value of Latin and Greek was increasingly questioned. Count Kunó Klebelsberg, while convinced of the utmost importance of classical humanistic education—including Latin, Greek, and their associated cultures—also recognized the indisputable value of modern languages. As he remarked, ‘without reading foreign newspapers and magazines, we cannot form a healthy opinion on foreign policy, even though Austria has ceased to think for us in foreign policy.’[59]
Modern languages, he argued, were essential to maintaining Hungary’s place within the Western cultural community into which St Stephen had integrated the country. By mastering them, students not only learn communication but also gain access to culture itself. The only distinction among the new language-teaching options was the emphasis on German as the first foreign language—a choice Klebelsberg attributed to geographical rather than political reasons.
‘Without reading foreign newspapers and magazines, we cannot form a healthy opinion on foreign policy’
Latin remained part of the reálgimnázium curriculum, as he considered it indispensable for students intending to pursue law or medicine. It facilitates language learning, carries enduring cultural influence, and—alongside Christianity—forms one of the cornerstones of modern European civilization.[60]
He felt that, aside from placing greater emphasis on modern languages, two other subjects required reform based on his experiences abroad: geography and history. Alongside modern languages, he considered these fields essential for Hungarian intellectuals to remain part of the European intellectual community. Klebelsberg observed that this segment of Hungarian society was generally naive and poorly informed on foreign policy matters. He proposed extending history education to cover events up to the Peace of Trianon and enriching geography classes with natural history, mineralogy, and physical geography.[61]
The social status of high schools remained unchanged: they continued to serve as arenas for elite education. They were the institutions where students obtained a school-leaving certificate,[62] which qualified them for university admission. What changed was the introduction of a new type of school, the reálgimnázium, which soon became the dominant form. To avoid increasing the total number of high schools in Hungary—a goal not supported by educational policy—70 classical grammar schools were reclassified as reálgimnáziums after the law was introduced.[63] This measure also reflected a concern about overtraining intellectuals in this social stratum.
Reform of Girls’ Education at Secondary Level
Kunó Klebelsberg himself wrote in one of his articles: ‘When the basic questions of our educational policy, the main types of schools, their curricula and the subjects to be taught were discussed, it was taken for granted that this applied only to boys’ schools and that girls’ education was dealt with briefly and casually.’[64]
The issue of girls’ education received unprecedented attention after the First World War, as it had become particularly pressing. The role of women in Hungarian society had also changed significantly. The poor postwar economic situation meant that men could no longer provide for their families alone. Many men married later than usual, only after they had secured the means of subsistence. Setting up and maintaining a household had become a difficult task. Consequently, Klebelsberg considered it essential that women be equipped with the ‘weapons of livelihood and knowledge’.[65]
The belief that ‘women should not study, but marry’ had to be challenged: ‘Hungarian women are both spiritually and morally up to cultural demands and must be supported to pursue higher intellectual careers.’[66] Klebelsberg also pointed out that women’s education could tap into the intellectual capital of four million people, which aligned with his aspirational cultural policy.[67]
‘Hungarian women are both spiritually and morally up to cultural demands and must be supported to pursue higher intellectual careers’
Count Kunó Klebelsberg regarded the adaptation of women’s education to boys’ schools as a widespread misconception in Europe. This approach overlooked women’s distinct competencies and inner lives. The curricula similarly failed to reflect these differences. To remedy this, he believed it would have been prudent to involve teachers from girls’ secondary schools and mothers in the process.[68]
He also asked the National Association of Hungarian Women to contribute to the success of the reform of girls’ education. He believed this organization was the most effective way to gather the opinions of mothers and young women who had recently left school. Meanwhile, he was planning to introduce a law covering all women’s education, which came into force in 1925. [69]
But what could have been an additional motivation to modernize the structure of educational institutions for girls? In the previous system, there was a problem: only one type of secondary school could provide a school leaving certificate, the girls’ secondary grammar school.[70] The upper girls’ school[71] was not suitable for doing so.[72]
Nevertheless, the Count wanted to create a type of secondary school that did not overburden students academically. In an article he wrote for the Pesti Napló, he pointed out the adverse health effects of the strenuous girls’ secondary grammar school on girls. He saw it as a problem that many mothers were prematurely withdrawing their daughters from school. However, he also wanted to give a ‘Latin-free’ high school for girls as an option. He found it unfair that boys intending to continue their education had a choice to choose between types of secondary school (like the real school or the classical grammar school), but girls did not.[73] However, when the new school type for girls was conceived, the idea of a real school prioritizing science and mathematics was to be abandoned. He envisaged a type of school that would be best suited to teach German, English and French.[74]
Girls’ secondary school reform bore a striking resemblance to the boys’ secondary school reform.[75] Its purpose was stated as follows: ‘The function of a girls’ secondary school is to provide the pupil with a higher general education in religious, moral and national spirit, and thus to enable her to do the intellectual work necessary for university and, in general, college studies.’[76]
Article XXIV of Law No 1926 distinguished three types of secondary education for girls: girls’ secondary grammar schools, [77] girls’ lyceums[78] and girls’ boarding schools.[79] Of these, only two could provide students with school-leaving certificates (equivalent to the boys’ school-leaving certificate) and were classified as secondary schools: the girls’ secondary grammar school and the girls’ lyceum. From there, girls could apply to both university and college.[80]
Although Latin continued to be taught at the girls’ secondary grammar school, the lyceum embraced ‘non-Latinism’ by focusing on two modern languages and their literature. The basic type of school became the lyceum,[81] and a girls’ secondary grammar school could only operate in an area if a girls’ lyceum was also available.[82]
The girls’ boarding school differed more from the two types of girls’ secondary schools than they did from one another, both in terms of further education and curriculum. Although the aim of this type of institution was also to provide students with a higher general education of a religious and nationalistic nature alongside a secondary level of education, it did not offer access to universities.[83]
Regarding subjects, the teaching of needlework, psychology, education, home economics, and economics was distinctively present. However, there was no Latin or philosophy, the latter being offered in other types of girls’ secondary schools.[84] It provided eight years of education, to which entry was possible from age ten with an elementary school certificate.[85]
But what did all three types of girls’ schools have in common? They taught religion and morals, Hungarian, German, and French languages and literature, Hungarian history, world history, geography, singing, physical education, science and mathematics, natural history, and chemistry.[86] While it may seem that there are more similarities than differences between the subjects taught in the institutions, the underlying ideas and principles distinguished the types.
‘[Klebelsber’s] vision went beyond providing primary education, seeking to make intermediate-level education accessible to broader society’
Count Kunó Klebelsberg’s education policy in the 1920s was an epoch-making success. His initiatives aimed to fundamentally modernize and transform the Hungarian education system: the fight against illiteracy, the building of elementary and higher elementary schools, the reforms of secondary schools, and the promotion of girls’ education all testify to this. His vision went beyond providing primary education, seeking to make intermediate-level education accessible to broader society.
His programme to build elementary schools was a success, substantially reducing illiteracy rates. The new schools became cultural hubs for both students and adults. The increasing popularity of higher elementary schools has provided more individuals with social mobility and a chance to ascend the social ladder. Thanks to the reforms in secondary education, both Hungarian boys and girls could gain admission to universities through different institutions.
Through his dynamic policies, the Count initiated change in education and within the intellectual and cultural spheres of Hungarian society. The education system he established shaped the educational policies of future generations, laying the groundwork for ideas that continue to have an impact today. The reforms he enacted contributed to the emergence of a more educated, aware, and independent Hungarian society.
[1] http://www.nefmi.gov.hu/miniszterium/volt-miniszterek/volt-miniszterek, accessed: 12 January 2025.
[2] Róbert Károly Kiss, ‘Népművelés és népiskolák Klebelsberg Kuno életművében’, in A legnagyobb álmú magyar kultuszminiszter: Klebelsberg Kuno kora és munkássága, Szeged, Belverde, 2008, p. 74.
[3] Attila Szabó, ‘A trianoni Magyarország közoktatási infrastruktúrája’, Földrajzi Közlemények 131/1-2(2007), 39–53, p. 41.
[4] Act XXXVIII of 1868 on Elementary Education for the People, 4§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=86800038.TV, accessed: 7 January 2025.
[5] Count Kunó Klebelsberg, ‘Falusi népiskoláink kiépítése,’ Nemzeti Ujság, 7/137 (1925), pp. 1–2, https://adt.arcanum.com/hu/view/NemzetiUjsag_1925_06/?pg=250&layout=s, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[6] Count Kunó Klebelsberg, ‘Budapest környékének népoktatása’, Nemzeti Ujság, 8/135 (1926), pp. 1–2, https://adt.arcanum.com/hu/view/NemzetiUjsag_1926_06/?pg=238&layout=s&query=Budapest+környékének+népoktatása, accessed: 4 January 2025.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Gábor Ujváry, ‘Egy európai formátumú államférfi’ Klebelsberg Kuno (1875-1932), Budapest, Kronosz Kiadó – Magyar Történelmi Társulat, 2014, p. 136.
[9] Ibid. Act XXX of 1921 on Ensuring Compliance with the Obligation to Provide Schooling, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92100030.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D38, accessed: 12 January 2025.
[10] Ujváry, p. 138.
[11] Its Hungarian name was: Országos Népiskola Építési Alap.
[12] Act VII of 1926 on the Establishment and Maintenance of Elementary School for the Benefit of the Agricultural Population, 2§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600007.TV, accessed 9 January 2025.
[13] Kiss, p. 75.
[14] ‘Objects’ in this context refers to classrooms and teachers’ residences. I will use the term in the same sense later on.
[15] Count Klebelsberg, ‘Falusi népiskoláink kiépítése,’ pp. 1–2.
[16] Act XXXVIII of 1868 on Elementary Education for the People, 2§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=86800038.TV, accessed 7 January 2025.
[17] Kiss, p. 75.
[18] Kiss, p. 78.
[19] Act VII of 1926 on the Establishment and Maintenance of Elementary Schools for the Benefit of the Agricultural Population, 1§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600007.TV, accessed: 9 January 2025.
[20] Szabó, p. 42.
[21] Ibid, p. 42.
[22] Kiss, p. 79.
[23] Szabó, p. 43.
[24] Ibid, p. 43.
[25] Its Hungarian name was iskolán kívüli népoktatás. Schooling the adults, in order to combat illiteracy.
[26] ‘A nemzetgyülés 268. ülése’, Az 1922. junius hó 16-ára hirdetett Nemzetgyűlés naplója XXII. kötet, Budapest, Az Athenaeum irodalmi és nyomdai részvénytársulat, 1924, p. 221, https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/OGYK_KN-1922_22/?pg=221&layout=s, accessed: 5 January 2025.
[27] Kiss, p. 82.
[28] ibid.
[29] Ujváry, p. 147.
[30] It could best be defined as a kind of ‘intermediate education’, somewhere between primary and secondary education.
[31] Count Klebelsberg, ‘Budapest környékének népoktatása’, pp. 1–2.
[32] Ibid.
[33] Ujváry, p. 147.
[34] Szabó, p. 47.
[35] Count Klebelsberg, ‘Budapest környékének népoktatása’, pp. 1–2.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Act XII of 1927 on Higher Elementary Schools, 1§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92700012.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D40, accessed: 9 January 2025.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Ibid.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Ibid.
[43] This type of grammar school is not to be confused with the British grammar school, as these schools put emphasis on classical humanist training rather than sciences. In Central Europe, these schools were also called ‘gymnasiums’.
[44] Ujváry, p. 149.
[45] https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/okt/hu/okt0005.html, accessed: 10 January 2025.
[46] Ujváry, p. 150.
[47] Szabó, p. 51.
[48] A school modell which does not separate schools according to fields of science but includes all knowledge in one school type.
[49] Count Klebelsberg, ‘Budapest környékének népoktatása’, pp. 1–2.
[50] ‘A nemzetgyülés 261. ülése’, Az 1922. junius hó 16-ára hirdetett Nemzetgyűlés naplója XXII. kötet, Budapest: Az Athenaeum irodalmi és nyomdai részvénytársulat, 1924, p. 8, https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/OGYK_KN-1922_22/?pg=7&layout=s, accessed: 9 January 2025.
[51] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 1§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 January 2025.
[52] Its Hungarian name was reáliskola. A type of secondary school which focuses on modern languages, mathematics and science.
[53] This type of institution is so unique that it has no English equivalent. In the document, it will be referred to by its Hungarian name. Its functions will be elaborated on later in the paper.
[54] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 2§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 Janury 2025.
[55] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 3§. https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 January 2025.
[56] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 4§. https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 January 2025.
[57] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 5§. https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 January 2025.
[58] Act XI of 1924 on Secondary Schools, 7§. https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92400011.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 13 January 2025.
[59] ‘A nemzetgyülés 261. ülése’, p. 9.
[60] Ibid, p. 10.
[61] ‘A nemzetgyülés 230. ülése’, Az 1922. junius hó 16-ára hirdetett Nemzetgyűlés naplója XX. kötet, Budapest, Az Athenaeum irodalmi és nyomdai részvénytársulat, 1924, https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/OGYK_KN-1922_20/?pg=7&layout=s, accessed: 8 Jabnuary 2025.
[62] Its Hungarian name is érettségi bizonyítvány. This type of certificate was only awarded to the pupils of secondary schools (classical grammar school/reálgimnázium/real school) who successfully completed their matura exams. (Only these certificates provided the opportunity to apply to university.)
[63] Szabó, p. 52.
[64] Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno beszédei, cikkei és törvényjavaslatai 1916-1926, Budapest, Athenaeüm Irodalmi és Nyomdai r.-t., 1927, p. 458.
[65] ‘A nemzetgyülés 268. ülése’, p. 218.
[66] Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno beszédei, cikkei és törvényjavaslatai 1916-1926, p. 463.
[67] Ibid, p. 465.
[68] Ibid.
[69] ‘A nemzetgyülés 268. ülése’, p. 218.
[70] Its Hungarian name was leánygimnázium. This school could also be defined as: ‘girls’ high school’. It offered academic secondary school education.
[71] Its Hungarian name was felső leányiskola. The upper girls’ school was a secondary educational institution in Hungary that operated from the late 19th to the early 20th century, primarily for girls, but did not provide a school leaving certificate, unlike the girls’ high school.
[72] Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno beszédei, cikkei és törvényjavaslatai 1916-1926, p. 462.
[73] Count Kunó Klebelsberg, ‘Részletek egy el nem mondott beszédből: A nőnevelés reformja’, Pesti Napló, 77/294 (1926), p. 7, https://adt.arcanum.com/en/view/PestiNaplo_1926_12/?pg=602, accessed: 11 January 2025.
[74] Gróf Klebelsberg Kuno beszédei, cikkei és törvényjavaslatai 1916-1926, p. 462.
[75] Szabó, p. 50.
[76] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 1§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[77] _Its Hungarian name was leánygimnázium. A secondary school type somewhat similar tot he boys’ classical grammar school.
[78] Its Hungarian name was leánylíceum. Its details will be elaborated further on.
[79] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
Its Hungarian name was leánykollégium. Its details will be elaborated further on.
[80] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 15§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025. 01. 02.
[81] Count Kunó Klebelsberg, ‘Részletek egy el nem mondott beszédből: A nőnevelés reformja’, p. 7.
[82] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 7§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[83] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 17§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[84] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 18§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[85] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School, 27§. https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
[86] Act XXIV of 1926 on the Girls’ Secondary School and the Girls’ Boarding School; 2, 3, 8§, https://net.jogtar.hu/ezer-ev-torveny?docid=92600024.TV&searchUrl=/ezer-ev-torvenyei%3Fpagenum%3D39, accessed: 2 January 2025.
Related articles:
